Iron removal is among the problematic issues for making potable water.  Its main issues involve taste, visual effects, and clogging. Iron in the form of their hydroxide creates a blockage…

Sulfate occurs naturally in groundwater. Concerns regarding the health effects of sulfate in drinking water have been raised because of reports that diarrhea may be associated with water that contains…

Chlorides may get into surface water from several sources including: Rocks containing chlorides,Agricultural runoff,Wastewater from industries,Oil well wastes, andEffluent wastewater from wastewater treatment plants. Chlorides can corrode metals and affect…

Magnesium metals are not affected by water at room temperature. Magnesium generally is a slow-reacting element, but reactivity increases with oxygen levels. Furthermore, magnesium reacts with water vapor to magnesium…

Calcium is naturally present in water. It may dissolve from rocks such as limestone, marble, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, fluorite, and apatite. Calcium is a determinant of water hardness because it…

Hard water can be problematic because the calcium and magnesium ions react with the higher fatty acids of soap to form an insoluble gelatinous curd, thereby causing a waste of…

Silica or silicon dioxide is found in abundance in the earth’s crust and is generally always present in a facility’s raw water intake. Silica is found in higher concentrations when…

Copper occurs naturally in an environment that shows high density relative to water and toxicity at low concentrations. Due to these characteristics, copper is classed as heavy metal. Copper is…

Chromium is a heavy metal that is high in hardness, high polish, a high melting point, and resistance to tarnish and corrosion. Native chromium metal is not found in the…

Cyanide is any substance that contains a specific type of carbon-nitrogen anion group. This can include free cyanide anions (CN–), as well as a number of different compounds, such as…